Feminist Perspectives on Leadership

The number of women holding managerial and professional positions has vastly increased over the past thirty years. Beginning in the early 1980s, women not only became 50% of college graduates in the United States, but studies show that women now hold 51% of managerial and other professional positions available (Duehr & Bono, 2006). Though the numbers of women accepting significant leadership positions is on a constant rise, women still face difficult and unfair obstacles in the workplace. Many male managers believe leadership to be effective, meaning leadership is high quality and should provide “ . . . a sense of cohesiveness [and] personal development . . .” (Van Wart, 2003, p. 214). Unfortunately, many believe females should not or cannot provide such effective leadership due to the balance of emotions, work, and home-life. There are also many other factors thought to be correlated with this inherent dislike of females possessing leadership or other managerial roles. Some of these examples include: gender stereotypes that lead to negative attitudes towards leadership positions held by women, the traits female leaders are said to possess that may hinder the organization (nurturing, sentimental, humble), and the belief that women are only suitable for nonprofit leadership positions or other pink collar jobs (Budhwar, et al. 2005; Duehr & Bono, 2006; Salamon & Sokolowski 2005). However, in the present paper, the variables that lead to the steady increase of female leadership positions are investigated. It is hypothesized that nonprofit organizational and community service work helps expand higher opportunities for working women in organizations, the stereotypes of female leaders are not necessarily true regarding the well-being of an organization, and women can help the organization expand due to their feminine character traits. The following studies and surveys support and illustrate this hypothesis. 

In the United States, “women play an important role in the nonprofit sector and have a distinct influence in terms of philanthropic giving, volunteering, and nonprofit sector employment” (Vasavada, 2012, p. 462). Through research, it has been concluded that many individuals picture the only female leadership role being that of a nonprofit organization. Many also believe that the “Baby Boom” cohort, male and female, are the ones holding extraordinary leadership roles and tendencies in these nonprofit organizations (Johnson, 2009). Though there is nothing harmful about this, many fail to realize that: nonprofit organizations are not the only way a woman can possess a managerial role, but they would rather accept a role where their character traits can be accepted, and nonprofit and community work can help build the qualifications and leadership skills necessary for any corporate position. A study conducted by Mastracci & Herring (2010), and another conducted by Salamon & Sokolowski (2005), prove just this. 

In the Mastracci & Herring (2010) study, it is illustrated that nonprofit organizations are what help women establish roles in life outside of the office. The study compared for-profit and nonprofit organizations and surprisingly proved that most female, full-time, leadership positions are present higher in nonprofits. This study exemplified that most women possess charismatic leadership roles that they are emotionally fond of rather than practicing hegemony in a corporate setting. According to Fine (2009), women are “more likely to base their career choice on a desire to help others” because they would rather engage in caring and personal communication. Also in the Mastracci & Herring (2010) study, corresponding evidence was evaluated that proved possessing any form of leadership roles through community service and nonprofit organizations helps to expand higher opportunities for working women in corporate organizations. Ultimately, this study proved that women choose to accept leadership positions in the nonprofit organizational setting because their feminine character traits are better accepted practicing such pink collar work. 

The study conducted by Salamon & Sokolowski (2005), too focused on nonprofit employment; however, suggested that individuals should seek leadership positions through them and explained why the nonprofit market is expanding. The term “nonprofit” is often substituted for “voluntary” to emphasize the facet of the way in which the organization operates. The authors stated that majority of the nonprofit employment is in healthcare, social services, and education (all fields most women choose to work). Ironically, these employment positions are very labor-intensive rather than capital-intensive, but during this work, volunteers are lucky to receive something as little as “intermediate compensation.” Corresponding with the above hypothesis, this labor-intensive work helps women gain leadership skills that they can use to benefit any organizational setting. Ultimately, they are practicing employment of which they feel they are truly accepted. Women are suitable for any leadership position but society has failed to completely unveil this concept (Sandberg, 2013). Unfortunately, many fail to realize that this is one of the many stereotypes that have been placed on female leaders. 

Stereotypes geared towards women in the workplace exist due to the masculine structures of organizations. When one thinks of a professional woman, they automatically assume they are holding a position in business, education, or pink-collar work. The term leadership is viewed to be a masculine term because a “leader” has to provide “ . . .  an overarching sense of direction and vision, an alignment with the environment, a healthy mechanism for innovation and creativity, and a resource for invigorating the organizational culture” (Van Wart, 2008, p. 214). Though women have proven their ability to lead, many still follow the masculine modes of leadership. Conversely, upholding any leadership position whether male or female can be challenging, especially when considering gender values, stereotypes, and attitudinal differences. Three different studies conducted by Fine (2009); Singh, et al. (2004); and Trinidad & Normore (2005), all consider the different stereotypes women have to face in the workplace. 

In the study conducted by Trinidad & Normore (2005), female leaders were reviewed specifically in the fields of business and education. Its purpose was to research leadership styles women possess in hopes to determine if women have their own ways of leading. The authors emphasize the areas in which women are able to exemplify these leadership skills and styles along with comparing them with the styles of men. Not only did the authors focus on leadership and gender, but they also focused on race and class. It was proven that social differences like such are a correlation in the development of leadership styles and how well one leads. The study concluded that women have taken it upon themselves to develop the stereotypical male modes of leadership because that is what they have been around majority of their working career. The authors analyzed feminine leadership styles and mentioned that they are not better or worse than traditional leadership styles, however, they are just “different.” In short, the authors concluded that feminine values that women bring to an organization are no better or no less than traditional values; therefore, should not be stereotyped as harmful or over exaggerated as emotionally problematic.

The findings of Singh, et al. (2004) compared and contrasted gender stereotypes, values, and job attitudes. The authors exemplified that when performing the study, the main focuses were job involvement, work ethic, and job performance of each gender. Through the study, the authors found that both men and women possessed attitudinal differences when it came to their job performance and how well they perform as a leader. Although studies have not shown specific differences in job attitudes by gender and how one may feel about their job, they did, however, produce proof that women are said to be much more committed to their work, careers, and leadership roles than men. In other words, feminine values that women contribute to organizations not only benefit the organization, but they also benefit their personal leadership styles, work ethic, and work performance. The study concluded that women who are more compassionate are more likely to be more committed to their job, work ethic, collegial relationships, and organizational involvement. 

Finally, in a narrative survey by Fine (2009), the above conclusion was tested, but by women themselves. The author investigated a group of fifteen women leaders who have achieved significant positions of leadership such as senior positions in government, business markets, or nonprofit organizations. The purpose of the study was to see how well the candidates were affiliated with their organization, how they personally viewed themselves as a leader, and if they believed that they contributed positively to their organizations. The participants were asked specifically to personally define the term leadership and their answers were analyzed to see if the findings could lead to a new constructed way and personal definition of leadership. It was found that two main reasons to become a leader were shared throughout each candidate. Each woman interviewed believed that they possessed the proper skills and characteristics necessary to lead, and they all mentioned that they just wanted to make a positive contribution to the world. Ironically, many of these women were afraid to accept a certain position in fear of not having enough family time or because they did not believe that they could achieve the proper goals necessary to benefit the organizations. In one portion of the interview, the candidates were asked to describe a time that they did not exercise leadership well. Many answered this question regarding the notion that they did not execute their leadership behavior (teamwork and open communication) in a formal manner. Others referred to past anecdotes when they were either discouraged by a male colleague or felt inferior to one. The findings revealed that many believe that the masculine models of leadership are more valued, and how unfortunately, when one thinks “manager” they think “male.” Considering the answers the fifteen women gave during their interview, they failed to realize the positive contribution they awarded to their organizations. These fifteen women were constantly reminded of the stereotypes and obstacles that they faced climbing their way up the career ladder. In result, they criticized themselves, and when asked how well of a leader they thought they were, they did not think highly of themselves at all. Eventually, it was revealed that female leaders and the traits they are said to possess do not hinder the organization; they in a sense allow it to positively expand if accepted. 

When examining women in the workplace, not only are women stereotyped, but they are also denigrated because of the character traits they are said to possess. Women who are compassionate and more humble are seen to possess leadership as a serving. Leaders who serve are most likely to have character traits such as hopefulness, strength, watchfulness, humbleness, and wonderment (Modaff, et al. 2012, p. 241-242). However, Vasvada (2012) reported that the “majority of organizations do not consider these traits important,” and they would rather accept or create an approach that would not accommodate feminine values (p. 469). The question then remains: are these characteristics helpful or hindering to organizations and they way their members communicate or its overall function? Interestingly enough, such characteristics are helpful to an organization and these exact beliefs are examined in three different studies conducted by Budhwar, et al. (2005); Grooves (2005); and Vasavada (2012). 

Budhwar et al. (2005) explored women in the workplace and examined the traits and characteristics that female leaders contribute to an organization. The authors also examined whether these traits are helpful or hindering to an organizational setting. In order to conduct this study, a panel of women leaders were evaluated and results found that female leaders were more compassionate and were more effective at creating trusting relationships with colleagues. This study explored stereotypes of female leaders and made evident that those stereotypes are not necessarily true regarding the well-being of the organization. Also, it was found that women are more motivated than men to help others. These findings suggest that with this helpfulness in organizations, a more trustworthy and productive establishment can eventually be created. Compared with the Grooves (2005) study, the findings of Budhwar et al. (2005) can be later identified as women possessing charismatic leadership. This examination of leader gender, social and emotional skills, and charismatic leadership exemplified that female leaders seem to possess better emotional and social skills that can produce a home-like feel to organizations. These skills fortunately equate to successful charismatic leadership and a woman’s contribution to the organization. Compared were gender, charismatic leadership, and portrayed whether only women are bearers of charismatic leadership. 

Another study that was conducted by Vasavada (2012), strictly explored the feminine traits women bring to the workplace and compared them to the certain skills and attributes women also contribute to society. Using a feminist framework, the author diagramed and emphasized the masculine expectation of women leadership, masculine values, and the pressure that this creates for women leaders attempting to perform. The study revealed that to accept the values and character traits a woman can bring to the table, one must first understand and recognize those same feminine values. Conversely, male managers believe that these feminine values and the emotions women possess negatively influence the decision making process in organizations. Male managers also view women managers to be weak, less assertive, less competitive, and less aggressive in the demanding work environment. Vasavada (2012) concluded that this perspective of women leaders is a stereotype and they too can be assertive, competitive, and aggressive. The study drew the conclusion that the compassion, emotions, and feminine values women have help organizations gain the ability to network more efficiently and effectively and build more trusting relationships among colleagues.

In conjunction, the results indicate that leadership positions are not just for men. In fact, the number of women leaders has vastly increased over the decades. It was hypothesized that women leaders and their feminine leadership styles help to benefit any type of organization (Budhwar, et al. (2005); Fine (2009); Grooves (2005); Mastracci & Herring (2010); Salamon & Sokolowski (2005); Singh, et al. (2004); Trinidad & Normore (2005); Vasavada (2012). Though many will not accept this, nonprofit organizational and community service work helps women gain the skills necessary to possess any leadership position, stereotypical ideas about female leaders and their contributions to organizations are not true, and women too, can help the organization expand due to their feminine character traits. Not only do the authors of each study focus on leadership and gender, but they also focused on the type of organizational setting and type of work that was being done. In future studies, one should focus more on race and class in hopes to prove that social differences are a correlation in the development of leadership styles, work ethic, and personal characteristics. Moreover, more longitudinal studies evaluating different cohorts should be conducted to maybe conclude that certain ages are better leaders than others. Women can possess the same leadership positions as men. The findings of Syed & Murray (2008) publicized that women too can become team members, team leaders, and explore effective diversity; they just have to know what they are capable of. It is important to understand that the character traits normally associated with female leaders make them suitable for any leadership position in any organization. There is a desperate need to get individuals to realize that men are not the only leaders, and both men and women need to realize women are able to do more than pink-collar jobs. Ultimately, this would help women climb the career ladder without the fear of stereotypes or not being truly accepted for their feminine values or character traits. 

List of Resources

1. Budhwar, P., Saini D., & Batnager J. (2005). Women in management in the new economic environment. Asia Pacific Business Review, 11(2), 179-193.

2. Duehr, E. E., & Bono, J. E. (2006). Men, women, and managers: Are stereotypes finally  changing? Personnel Psychology, 59, 815-846.

3. Fine, M. (2009). Women leaders' discursive constructions of leadership. Women's Studies in Communication, 32(2), 180-202. 

4. Groves, K. (2005). Gender differences in social and emotional skills and charismatic leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 11(3), 30-46.

5. Johnson, J. L. (2009). The nonprofit leadership deficit: A case for more optimism. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 17(3), 285-304.

6. Mastracci, S.H. & Herring, C. (2010) Nonprofit management practices and work processes to promote gender diversity. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 21(2), 115-175. 

7. Modaff, D., Butler, J., & Dewin, S. (2012). Organizational communication: Foundations, challenges, and misunderstandings. 3rd ed., (240-242). New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

8. Salamon, L. M., & Sokolowski, S. W. (2005). Nonprofit organizations: New insights from QCEW data. Monthly Labor Review. 1-8.

9. Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in: Women, work, and the will to lead. (p. 8,158,160). New York, NY: Alfred A. Knope.

10. Singh, P., Finn, D., & Goulet, L. (2004). Gender and job attitudes: a re-examination and extension. Women in Management Review, 19(7), 345-355.

11. Syed, J., & Murray, P. A. (2008). A cultural feminist approach towards managing diversity in top management teams. Equal Opportunities International, 27(5), 413-432. 

12. Trinidad, C., & Normore, A. (2005). Leadership and gender: A dangerous liaison? Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26(7/8), 574-590.

13. Van Wart, M. (2003). Public-Sector Leadership Theory: An Assessment. Public Administration Review, 63(2), 214-228.

14. Vasavada, T. (2012). A cultural feminist perspective on leadership in nonprofit organizations: A case of women leaders in India. Public Administration Quarterly, 36(4), 462-503.